Introduction:
The intended audience here is my fellow Catholics, especially those who may be confused by protestant error. I have chosen to focus on one particular heretical monastic priest as the subject. His errors and the errors he helped to give birth are still strong today almost 500 years later. I am not a Historian. I have sketched out a chronological history (gathered from multiple sources) as an attempt to better understand some of the events that helped to spark off the protestant revolt. If there are clarifications or corrections, please feel free to provide them.
Chronological Events Related to Martin Luther:
1501: Luther is 22 years old, and enters the Augustinian monastery in Erfurt.
1507: Luther is ordained to the priesthood.
1509: Luther is at the University of Wittenberg (which was founded in 1502, and has roughly 80 students). He was recalled to Erfurt later that year.
1512: Luther is back at Wittenberg, and was admitted to the doctorate.
1512: Same year, the Fifth Lateran Council begins.
1515-March-31: Pope Leo X issues a Papal Bull granting plenary indulgences for those contributing to the rebuilding of the new basilica of St. Peter's in Rome. (This in of itself was not an abuse of Indulgences.)
1517: The close of the Fifth Lateran Council.
1517-October-31: Luther writes the "Disputation of Martin Luther on the Power and Efficacy of Indulgences" (The 95 Theses) Luther places the 95 Theses on the church door (An academic challenge to disputation). Luther also provided this with a letter to the archbishop. (Now we are outside of academia... The archbishop submitted them to his councilors at Aschaffenburg and to the professors of the University of Mainz. The councilors were of the unanimous opinion that they were of an heretical character, and that proceedings against the Wittenberg Augustinian should be taken. This report, with a copy of the Theses, was then transmitted to the pope.)
1518-January-20: 300 Dominicans in Frankfurt hold a disputation concerning the 95 Theses during their regional chapter meeting. John Tetzel (a Dominican Monk, and preacher for Indulgences) participates and presents an academic 106 Anti-Theses. (Tetzel argues that Luther's attack is not just on the abuse of indulgences, but on the penitential system of the Church itself, and on the doctrine of ecclesiastical authority.) From this meeting through March, Luther works to provide a response to Tetzel. This response was not in the realm of academia, but into the public.
1518-February: Pope Leo X asks the head of the Augustinian order to convince Luther to stop spreading his ideas.
1518-March: Luther publishes a “Sermon on Indulgences and Grace”, a small book presenting the ideas of the 95 Theses for popular consumption. The book serves as a response to specifics points of Tetzel’s criticism and it places an erroneous attack on the three part division of penance as "scripturally unfounded". The book also stresses good works and sincere repentance over indulgences, with Luther wrongly criticizing indulgences as non-scriptural. The book declares the Catholic clergy as being greedy and wasting money on St. Peter's Basilica when it could be better spent on the poor in their own neighborhoods.
1518-April: Tetzel responded with a published point-by-point refutation of Luther’s book “Sermon on Indulgences and Grace”, citing heavily from the Bible and important theologians.
1518-May-15: Luther publishes "Sermon on the Power of Excommunication" in which it is contended that visible union with the Church is not broken by excommunication, but by sin alone.The inflammatory character of this sermon, fully acknowledged by Luther, only strengthens suspicions of his lack of good faith.
1518-May-30: Luther publishes his “Resolutions” (detailed explanation of the 95 Theses) explaining his understanding of indulgences and penance. A copy is sent to the Bishop of Brandenburg with a request to send it on to the Pope. (It was sent). This bishop counseled Luther to abstain from all further publication. Luther responded with obedience at the time.
1518-August: Early in the month Luther is requested to appear in Rome by the pope. This is a hearing, not an academic activity. He responds that such a trip could not be undertaken without endangering his life. Luther seeks the help of Emperor Maximilian and Elector Frederick to have the hearing and judges appointed in Germany. The university sends letters to Rome and to the nuncio sustaining the plea of "infirm health" and vouching for Luther's orthodoxy.
Johann Eck (a friend of Luther at that time, and Vice-Chancellor of the University of Ingolstadt) writes a private refutation of the explanation of the 95 theses, and highlights and provides commentary on the problematic passages. This refutation was done at the request of the Bishop of Eichstatt. A transcription reaches Luther, Luther is upset by it, Eck attempts to calm tempers in a letter of explanation. Luther responds with his own private letter, and the debate becomes public.
1518-October-11: Luther meets with Cardinal Cajetan (Papal Legate / representative of the Pope. Dominican, philosopher, theologian, and exegete.) in Germany for the three day long hearing. From the Catholic Encyclopedia article on Luther: "Cajetan came to adjudicate, Luther to defend; the former demanded submission, the latter launched out into remonstrance; the one showed a spirit of mediating patience, the other mistook it for apprehensive fear; the prisoner at the bar could not refrain from bandying words with the judge on the bench. The legate, with the reputation of 'the most renowned and easily the first theologian of his age', could not fail to be shocked at the rude, discourteous, bawling tone of the friar, and having exhausted all his efforts, he dismissed him with the injunction not to call again until he recanted."
1518-October-31: Luther returns to Wittenberg on the anniversary of the 95 Theses.
1518-November-28: Luther sends an appeal to Pope Leo X and to an ecumenical council.
1519-January-05: Luther meets with Karl von Miltiz (papal nuncio) to work on an end to the controversy. At one point Luther concedes to be silent on the matters if his opponents were, complete submission to the pope, to publish a plain statement to the public advocating loyalty to the Church, and to place the whole case in the hands of a delegated bishop. (It is also stated in some sources that Luther was allowed by Miltitz to make it plain that he would not recant his position as a compromise to the other concessions.)
1519-March-03: Luther writes to Pope Leo X: "Before God and all his creatures, I bear testimony that I neither did desire, nor do desire to touch or by intrigue to undermine the authority of the Roman Church and that of your holiness."
1519-March-05: Luther writes to George Burkhardt: "It was never my intention to revolt from the Roman Apostolic chair."
It seems from late winter of 1519 through the Spring, Luther has reformed his ways. However this starts to unravel with the next quote, and into the summer.
1519-March-13: Luther writes to George Burkhardt: "I am at a loss to know whether the pope be antichrist or his apostle."
1519-Summer: Eck and Karlstadt (colleague of Luther) plan to hold a disputation (the Leipzig Debate) of topics related to Luther’s doctrines in a public forum. Many attempted to dissuade the disputation from taking place. Luther had pledged to remain silent on the subject, but made efforts to encourage the debate. Luther was invited to the debate and participated. Topics ranged from Papal Supremacy to Infallibility of Ecumenical Councils to Purgatory. This “academic exercise” seems to have induced Luther to double down on his errors. Eck's debating skills led to Luther's open admissions of heresy. Luther declared that sola scriptura was the basis of Christian belief, that the Pope had no power as he was not mentioned in the Bible, and condemned the sale of indulgences to the laity to reduce their time in purgatory, as there was no mention of purgatory in the Bible. Over the next several months Luther’s erroneous doctrines (as noted in his writings and publications) are solidified:
- The Bible is the only source of faith; it contains the plenary inspiration of God; its reading is invested with a quasi-sacramental character.
- Human nature has been totally corrupted by original sin, and man, accordingly, is deprived of free will. Whatever he does, be it good or bad, is not his own work, but God's.
- Faith alone can work justification, and man is saved by confidently believing that God will pardon him. This faith not only includes a full pardon of sin, but also an unconditional release from its penalties.
- The hierarchy and priesthood are not Divinely instituted or necessary, and ceremonial or exterior worship is not essential or useful. Ecclesiastical vestments, pilgrimages, mortifications, monastic vows, prayers for the dead, intercession of saints, avail the soul nothing.
- All sacraments, with the exception of baptism, Holy Eucharist, and penance (but they do not confer grace in the Catholic sense), are rejected, but their absence may be supplied by faith.
- The priesthood is universal; every Christian may assume it. A body of specially trained and ordained men to dispense the mysteries of God is needless and a usurpation. The state has supreme power in all church appointments.
- There is no visible Church (consisting of the just alone) or one specially established by God whereby men may work out their salvation.
1520-Spring: Eck takes Luther’s published works and doctrines to Rome for examination and discussion.
1520-July-10: Luther hears word that a papal bull is being prepared. In response he is quoted as saying: "As for me, the die is cast: I despise alike the favour and fury of Rome; I do not wish to be reconciled with her, or ever to hold any communion with her. Let her condemn and burn my books; I, in turn, unless I can find no fire, will condemn and publicly burn the whole pontifical law, that swamp of heresies"
1520-July-15: Exsurge Domine was written. It formally condemns 41 propositions from Luther’s works, ordered the destruction of the books containing the errors, and summoned Luther to recant within sixty days or receive excommunication. Eck was appointed to publish the Bull in Germany. Eck’s appointment was not received well by Luther, his supporters and other German Catholics alike. Enforcement of the ban on Luther's writings fell to the secular authorities.
1520-October: Luther Sends the pope a copy of “On the Freedom of a Christian”. In this book Luther developed the erroneous concept that as fully forgiven children of God, Christians are no longer compelled to keep God's law; however, they freely and willingly serve God and their neighbors. Luther also further develops the error of justification by faith alone.
1520-December: Luther publicly sets fire to the Exsurge Domine in Wittenburg.
1521-January-03: Luther is formally excommunicated by Pope Leo X in the bull Decet Romanum Pontificem.
1521-April-21: Luther appears before the Diet of Worms. Eck presented copies of Luther’s writings laid out on a table and asked if the books were his, and whether he stood by their contents.
Luther’s response: "Unless I am convinced by the testimony of the Scriptures or by clear reason (for I do not trust either in the pope or in councils alone, since it is well known that they have often erred and contradicted themselves), I am bound by the Scriptures I have quoted and my conscience is captive to the Word of God. I cannot and will not recant anything, since it is neither safe nor right to go against conscience. May God help me. Amen."
Eck’s response to Luther: "Martin, there is no one of the heresies which have torn the bosom of the church, which has not derived its origin from the various interpretation of the Scripture. The Bible itself is the arsenal whence each innovator has drawn his deceptive arguments. It was with Biblical texts that Pelagius and Arius maintained their doctrines. Arius, for instance, found the negation of the eternity of the Word—an eternity which you admit, in this verse of the New Testament—Joseph knew not his wife till she had brought forth her first-born son; and he said, in the same way that you say, that this passage enchained him. When the fathers of the Council of Constance condemned this proposition of John Huss—The church of Jesus Christ is only the community of the elect, they condemned an error; for the church, like a good mother, embraces within her arms all who bear the name of Christian, all who are called to enjoy the celestial beatitude.”
1521-May-25: Edict of Worms declared Luther an outlaw, banning his literature, and required his arrest. It also made it a crime for anyone in Germany to give Luther food or shelter. It permitted anyone to kill Luther without legal consequence.
General Thoughts:
I can understand those who might read this history and find themselves sympathizing with some of Luther’s actions. It is true that indulgences were abused, and that Luther was against it. There are some who might make the conclusion that the corrupt members of the Church who were taken to task by Luther, had it out for him to protect the illicit scheme they had in place. A further conclusion might be made that the beating Luther took in attacking the indulgence abuse pushed him into his greater errors. If only the abusers had given more consideration, Luther might have been a Catholic hero, or even a Catholic saint who reformed the Church in a time of corruption. Maybe he is a Catholic hero… through his disobedience and revolutionary stance against those who deformed Christ’s Doctrine.
Those conclusions are not reality, and I hope that I am only presenting a strawman. I propose instead, that many of the characters noted as attackers of Luther (Pope Leo X, Tetzel, Cajetan, Eck), recognized a problem early on. They saw something strange in his writings, and heard something off in his speech. They took a harsh reading of Luther’s works because they read in them what Luther intended, and heard what he said for the error that it was. Luther’s works were justifiably suspect.
St. Thomas defines heresy as "a species of infidelity in men who, having professed the faith of Christ, corrupt its dogmas [...] The right Christian faith consists in giving one's voluntary assent to Christ in all that truly belongs to His teaching." Luther is by this definition a person who fell into heresy. Those Catholics today which might be tempted to propose that Luther was sound in his doctrines, also fall into this definition.
Scandal is a word or action evil in itself, which occasions another's spiritual ruin. Scandal is divided into active and passive. Active scandal causing one to sin through our actions or omissions. Passive scandal is the sin which another commits in consequence of active scandal.
Both active and passive scandal is seen throughout this situation, and parallels should be considered when modern prelates are caught in immoral practices, or have openly taught things against Christ and their office.
While Indulgences were in fact being abused (active scandal), this is not where Luther’s objections stopped, nor was it the heart of his personal error. He interpreted Sacred Scripture with his own efforts instead of with the Church. Luther was attacking the penitential system of the Church itself, and the doctrine of ecclesiastical authority. He did not stop with the 95 theses, but continued in his errors on purgatory, salvation, the nature of man, and the authority of the Church and other things that have lead many souls on the path to damnation.
Aided by the printing press and academic system of the time, the speed at which this all took place was very fast. Imagine how much faster problems are disseminated in our “technologically advanced” times! There are even accounts of “fake news” during the 1500s that influenced situations surrounding Luther. Luther expressed his errors, given opportunity to change his convictions, and ultimately was corrected by Pope Leo X himself.
Pray for those who struggle with the errors of Luther. Pray for those who follow an ill-formed conscience. Pray for those who struggle to understand papal infallibility. Pray for those who have taken scandal, and for those who are giving it.
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